The techniques of error detecting include what

Error detection techniques are used to identify errors that occur during data communication. Some of the commonly used error detecting techniques include: 1. Parity Check: This technique involves adding a ninth bit to the 8-bit data byte, i.e., parity bit (either even or odd). The number of 1s in the data byte determines whether the parity bit should be 0 or 1. On the receiver's end, the parity bit is checked, and if the number of 1s doesn't match with the expected oddness/evenness, it indicates a transmission error. 2. Checksum: A checksum is generated by adding a sequence of bytes together using modulo-2 arithmetic and complementing the result. The checksum at the receiver's end is evaluated in the same way, and if the two checksums do not match, there is an error in transmission. 3. Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC): This technique uses a checksum algorithm to detect errors in transmission. It divides the data into fixed-length blocks, generates a checksum for each block, and appends it to the block. At the receiver's end, the checksum is re-evaluated, and if it doesn't match with the received checksum, it indicates an error. 4. Hamming Code: Hamming code is a linear error-correcting code that can detect and correct single-bit errors. For n-bit data, an extra r-bit redundancy is added to form a (n+r)-bit code word. The actual data is then sent as per this modified word, and the receiver uses this redundancy to correct any errors that occur during transmission. These error detecting techniques are commonly used in various communication protocols, including Wi-Fi, Ethernet, and Bluetooth.